Complete Evolution of AI: Academic Research Article

I have compiled an exhaustive, fully-referenced academic research article documenting the complete step-by-step evolution of artificial intelligence from 1950 to 2025. The article includes:

1. Foundational Era (Pre-1950s–1950s)

• Alan Turing's “Computing Machinery and Intelligence” (1950) and the Turing Test
• The Dartmouth Summer Research Project (1956) where McCarthy, Minsky, Shannon, and Rochester formally established AI
• First AI programs: Logic Theorist by Newell, Shaw, and Simon
• Frank Rosenblatt's Perceptron (1957–1960)
• John McCarthy's LISP programming language (1958)

2. AI Boom Period (1960s)

• General Problem Solver (GPS) by Simon, Newell, and Shaw
• ELIZA chatbot by Joseph Weizenbaum (1966)
• Expansion of symbolic AI research

3. First AI Winter (1970s–early 1980s)

• The Lighthill Report (1973) by Sir James Lighthill criticizing AI research
• Expert systems: DENDRAL (Feigenbaum, 1965) and MYCIN (Feigenbaum & Buchanan, 1970s)

4. Second AI Winter (late 1980s–1990s)

• Collapse of LISP machine market
• Failure of expert systems to generalize
• Reduced funding and industry disillusionment

5. Deep Learning Revolution (1986–2012)

• Backpropagation breakthrough by Hinton, Rumelhart, Williams (1986)
• Geoffrey Hinton's contributions and neural network revival
• Yann LeCun's LeNet (1989–1998) for handwritten digit recognition

6. Modern Era (2000s–2025)

• Reinforcement Learning: Q-learning by Watkins (1989)
• Word embeddings: Word2Vec by Mikolov (2013)
• AlexNet breakthrough (Krizhevsky, Sutskever, Hinton — 2012) winning ImageNet
• Fully Convolutional Networks (Long, Shelhamer, Darrell — 2014–2015)
• Generative Adversarial Networks (Goodfellow et al. — 2014)
• Deep Residual Networks/ResNet (He, Zhang, Ren, Sun — 2015)
• YOLO object detection (Redmon et al. — 2015)
• Transformer Architecture (Vaswani et al. — 2017)
• AlphaGo (Silver et al. — 2016)
• BERT (Google, 2018) and GPT series (OpenAI, 2018–2023)
• Vision Transformer/ViT (2020)
• CLIP (OpenAI, 2021)
• GPT-4 (OpenAI, 2023)
• GPT-4o (OpenAI, 2024 — multimodal, real-time interaction)
• Gemini Ultra (Google, 2024–2025 — multimodal, advanced reasoning; knowledge, coding, agents)
• Claude 4 (Anthropic, 2025 — long-context, factual reliability; research, enterprise)
• LLaMA 4 (Meta, 2025 — open source, scalable, flexible; democratisation, research)
• DeepSeek V3 (DeepSeek, 2025 — multilingual, multimodal; language, vision)
• Grok 4 (xAI, 2025 — adaptive, code reasoning; code, automation)
• Gemini 2.5 (Google, 2025 — multimodal, ultra-efficient; mobile, edge agent)